30 Variation in Organisms 31 What is a Species? 32 Problems in Defining a Species 33 Karyotypes 34 Evolution of the Human Karyotype 35 Making a Karyogram 36 Diversity in Genomes 37 Genome Size 38 Chromosomes and Species 39 Using Whole Genome Sequencing 40 Classification Keys 41 Making a Classification Key 42 DNA Barcodes 43 Classifying Organisms 44 Cladistics and Phylogenetic Trees 45 Molecular Evidence and Cladistics

47 The Theory of Evolution 48 Molecular Sequencing as Evidence for Evolution 49 Evolution and Selective Breeding 50 Homologous Structures 51 Convergent Evolution 52 Speciation 53 Allopatric and Sympatric Speciation 54 Adaptive Radiation in Mammals 55 Barriers to Hybridization 56 Abrupt Speciation in Plants 57 Earth's Biodiversity 58 The Sixth Mass Extinction 59 Human Activity and Ecosystem Loss 60 Conservation Strategies 61 Did You Get it?

63 Carbon Chemistry 64 Carbohydrate Chemistry 65 Condensation and Hydrolysis of Sugars 66 Polysaccharides 67 Functions of Saccharide Polymers 68 Lipids 69 Phospholipids 71 Amino Acids 72 Amino Acids and Proteins 73 R-Groups 74 Protein Structure 75 Comparing Globular and Fibrous Proteins

77 The Plasma Membrane 78 Proteins of the Plasma Membrane 79 Movement Across the Plasma Membrane 80 Active Transport and Pump Proteins 81 Membrane Fluidity 82 Cytosis and Membrane Fluidity 83 Gated Ion Channels 84 Exchange Transporters and Cotransporters 85 Cell-Adhesion Molecules and Junctions 86 Compartmentalization in Cells 87 New Techniques in Cellular Visualization 88 Adaptations in Mitochondria and Chloroplasts 89 The Nucleus and Endoplasmic Reticulum 90 Membranes and the Production of Proteins 91 Stem Cells and Cell Specialization 92 Comparing Human Cell Sizes 93 Constraints to Cell Size 94 Investigating the Effect of Cell Size 95 Cellular Adaptations to Increase Surface Area 96 Adaptations of Mammalian Cells 98 Gas Exchange Adaptations 99 Gas Exchange in Fish 100 Adaptations for Mammalian Gas Exchange 101 Lung Ventilation 102 Measuring Lung Volume 103 Oxygen Transport and Haemoglobin 104 Leaf Adaptations for Gas Exchange 105 Gas Exchange and Transpiration 106 Investgating Stomatal Density 107 Arteries 108 Veins 109 Capillaries 110 Measuring Changes in Pulse Rates 111 Coronary Occlusions 112 The Formation of Tissue Fluid 113 Single and Double Circulatory Systems 114 The Mammalian Heart and the Cardiac Cycle 115 Transport of Water Through a Plant 116 Xylem Tissue and Water Transport 117 Distribution of Plant Tissue 118 Uptake at the Root 119 Phloem Tissue 120 Movement 121 Movement 122 Swimming Adaptations in Marine Mammals 123 Exoskeletons and Endoskeletons 124 The Sliding Filament Theory 125 Skeletal Muscle Structure and Function 126 Antagonistic Muscles 127 Movement About Joints

129 Habitat 130 Plant Adaptations 131 Tolerance and Population Distribution 133 Transect Sampling 134 How Do Abiotic Factors Affect Distribution? 135 Abiotic Factors Affect Biome Distribution 136 The World's Terrestrial Biomes 137 Marine Biomes 138 Adaptations to Tropical Environments 139 Adaptations to Desert Environments 140 The Ecological Niche 141 Dealing with Different Levels of Oxygen 143 Dentition and Diet in Hominidae 144 Herbivores and Resisting Herbivory 145 Predator-Prey Strategies 146 Plant Adaptations for Gathering Light 147 Fundamental and Realized Niches 148 Competition and Competitive Exclusion

151 The Properties of Enzymes 152 Factors Affecting Enzyme Reaction Rate 153 Investigating Peroxidase Activity 154 Intracellular and Extracellular Enzyme Reactions 155 Generating Heat 156 Metabolic Pathways 157 Enzyme Inhibitors 158 Control of Metabolic Pathways 159 The Role of ATP in Cells 160 ATP and Energy 161 Cellular Respiration Overview 162 Measuring Respiration 163 The Biochemistry of Aerobic Respiration 164 The Electron Transport Chain and Chemiosmosis 165 Anaerobic Pathways 166 Investigating Yeast Fermentation 167 Photosynthesis Overview 168 Separation of Pigments by Chromatography 169 Pigments and Light Absorption 170 Factors Affecting Photosynthesis 171 Details of Photosynthesis 172 Light Dependent Reactions 173 Light Independent Reactions 174 Did You Get It?

175 Signals and Signal Transduction 176 Signal Molecules 177 Communication Over Short and Long Distances 178 Transmembrane and Intracellular Receptors 179 Transmembrane Receptors for Neurotransmitters 180 G-Coupled Protein Receptors 181 Tyrosine Kinase Activity in Receptors 182 Intracellular Receptors 183 Feedback and Hormones 184 Neuron Structure and Function 185 The Nerve Impulse 186 Speed of the Nerve Transmission 187 Chemical Synapses 188 Electrical Impulses in the Nerve 189 Chemicals at Synapses 190 Summation at Synapses 191 The Perception of Pain 192 What Makes Consciousness?

194 Biological Organization 195 Integration in Nervous and Hormonal Signalling 196 Integration in Materials and Energy Transport 197 Information Integration in the Brain 198 The Autonomic Nervous System 199 Neural Inputs and Outputs 200 Structure of Nerves 201 Reflexes 202 Sleeping and Waking 203 Control of the Endocrine System 204 Control of the Heart Rate 205 Control of Ventilation Rate 206 Control of Peristalsis 207 Investigating Phototropism 208 Phytohormones as Signalling Chemicals 209 Auxins and Phototropism 210 Interaction of Plant Hormones 211 Positive Feedback Loops and Fruit Ripening 212 Pathogens and Disease 213 The Skin as a First Line of Defence 214 Innate and Adaptive Immune Systems 215 Phagocytes and Phagocytosis 216 Antibodies 217 Antigens 218 Lymphocytes and Adaptive Immune Response 219 Clonal Selection 220 HIV/AIDS and the Immune System 221 Antibiotics 222 Evolution of Antibiotic Resistance 223 Zoonoses 224 The Covid-19 Pandemic 225 Vaccines and Immunization

227 Features of Populations 228 Sampling Populations 229 How Do We Sample Ecosystems? 230 Quadrat Sampling 233 Estimating Population Size: Mark and Recapture 234 Carrying Capacity 235 Population Regulation 236 Population Growth 237 Population Growth Curves 238 Modelling Population Growth 239 Ecosystems and Communities 240 Interactions Within Species 241 Interactions Between Species 242 Interspecific Competition 243 Testing for Interspecific Competition 244 Using the Chi Squared Test in Ecology 245 Chi Squared Exercise in Ecology 246 Predator-Prey Relationships 248 Chemical Defences 249 Systems and Energy 250 Flow of Energy Through Ecosystems 251 Quantifying Energy Flow in an Ecosystem 252 Food Chains 253 Food Webs 254 Ecological Pyramids 255 Primary Productivity 256 Trophic Efficiencies and Secondary Production 257 The Carbon Cycle 258 Analyzing Changes in Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide

261 DNA Replication 262 Details of DNA Replication (Prokaryote) 263 Polymerase Chain Reaction 264 Gel Electrophoresis 265 Applications of DNA Tools 266 What is Gene Expression? 267 The Genetic Code 268 Transcription in Eukaryotes 269 Translation 270 Regulating Transcription 271 Regulating Translation 272 Gene Mutations 273 Causes and Consequences of Mutations 274 Genetic Technology 275 Hypotheses for Conserved Genetic Sequences

277 Cell Division 278 Mitosis and Cytokinesis 279 Modelling Mitosis 280 Meiosis and Variation 281 Nondisjunction in Meiosis 282 Growth and Repair 283 The Eukaryotic Cell Cycle 284 Regulating the Cell Cycle 285 Regulating Translation 286 Determining the Rate of Growth 287 Gene Regulation and Cellular Differentiation 288 Epigenetics 289 Gene Regulation 290 Solutions 291 Estimating Osmolarity in Cells 292 Water Relations in Plants 293 Solute Potential and Cells

295 How do Organisms Reproduce? 296 The Male Reproductive System 297 Spermatogenesis 298 The Female Reproductive System 299 Oogenesis 300 Fertilization in Humans 301 Fertilization and Early Growth 302 The Menstrual Cycle 303 Hormones and Puberty 304 Treating Infertility with In Vitro Fertilization (IVF) 305 Detecting Pregnancy 306 The Placenta 307 Hormones of Pregnancy 308 Hormone Replacement Therapy 309 Flowering Plant Sexual Reproduction 310 Insect-Pollinatted Flower Structure 311 Cross-pollination and Fertilization Mechanisms 312 Seed Dispersal 313 Seed Structure and Germination 314 The Genetic Basis of Inheritance 315 Genotypes and Alleles 316 Genetic Crosses in Flowering Plants 317 Phenotypes and the Environment 318 Variation and Phenotypic Plasticity 319 Phenylketonuria 320 Alleles in Populations 321 Multiple Alleles and Codominance 322 Incomplete Dominance 323 Sex Determination and Linkage 324 Pedigree Analysis 325 Polygenes 326 Mendel's Laws of Inheritance 327 Dihybrid Inheritance 328 Exploring Gene Databases 329 Inheritance of Linked Genes 330 Recombinations and Dihybrid Inheritance 331 Testing the Outcomes of Genetic Crosses 332 Principles of Homeostasis 333 Negative Feedback Loops 334 Control of Blood Glucose 335 Diabetes Mellitus 336 Thermoregulation 337 Kidneys and Osmoregulation 338 Kidney Function 339 Control of Urine Output in the Collecting Ducts 340 Changes to Blood Supply

343 Evolution and Change 344 Abiotic Selection Pressures 345 Adaptation, Survival, and Reproduction 346 Sexual Selection 347 Modelling Selection 348 Gene Pools and Populations 349 Neo Darwinism and Modern Synthesis of Evolution 350 Directional, Stabilizing, and Disruptive Evolution 351 Using the Hardy-Weinburg Equation 352 Artificial Selection 353 Ecosystem Stability 354 The Amazon Rainforest and Deforestation 355 Modelling Ecosystems 356 Keystone Species and Stability 357 Sustainable Harvesting 358 Sustainable Agriculture 359 Eutrophication 360 Biomagnification 361 Plastics in the Ocean 362 Rewilding 363 Primary Succession 364 Cyclical and Arrested Succession 365 Climate Change: Causes and Tipping Points 366 Climate Change and Polar Regions 367 The Effects of Climate Change